During recent summit of SCO as well as following Chinese military parade, several anti-western countries, like Russia, China, Iran and North Korea, declared their mutual opposition to Western world order. They cited various vague reasons for their stance, accusing the US and The West of hegemony they intend to oppose.
If that was true, then countries such as India for example would be inclined to join them. India was present on SCO summit but left before the military parade, unwilling to get themselves entangled into the whole anti-Western plotting of Russia and China.
Nonetheless the block featured countries that at first glance have nothing in common with each other. Can you name a single thing that someone like Iran has in common with China for example?
However, the countries that oppose collective West, has one peculiar trait that not only unites them but also profoundly affect how they are governed even so many hundreds of years after it ended. That trait is the fact that all of them were once part of biggest empires in human history, the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan and his successors.
When people think of Mongol Empire, they often think of a legendary conqueror Genghis Khan, who much like Alexander the Great, conquered a lot but hardly left anything lasting. Someone who flashed through the world like a shooting star, leaving a large trail of epic conquest and destruction, but ultimately disappearing in history without much trace left. That is not true even of Alexander the Great, as two of his Diadochi (deputy commanders) managed to create lasting dynasties in Egypt and Persia, that lasted hundreds of years.
Mongolian empire maybe broke into pieces rather fast, but Mongols stayed in charge for hundreds of years, shaping the entire generations of people they have conquered. Not only that but model of governance they employed continues to be used in the countries formally ruled by them even today.
Mongols were steppe nomads who knew how fight or live in the steppes but knew little of life of sedentary people they have conquered. However, the people they conquered were typically much wealthy than them and Mongols wanted that wealth for themselves. To get that wealth they used the only thing they knew how to use, violence, coercion and intimidation.
Thus, Mongols not so much governed, so much plundered the people they have conquered. When firmly in charge, they institutionalised the plunder. Instead of them coming down in force, killing, stealing and burning everything down, they demanded the conquered people to gather a hefty tribute and deliver it to them themselves in exchange for sparing them of killing and burning everything down. The kind of deal you can expect from an armed robber, give them a wallet to avoid catching bullet in the head. Mafia's protection racket also comes in mind. All three work fundamentally the same way.
However, what choice one had? If you do not pay them off, they will simply take if from your cold dead hands. Mongols made it a point to brutally massacre those who refuse to pay to make example to the rest of what happens if you dare to oppose them.
Fight them off? Mongols had composite bow that allowed them to shoot from horseback. Pair that with the tactic of constantly moving around and shooting and you have a foe that is impossible to defeat for most of contemporary armies. Against melee cavalry they can always keep their distance, while firing as they move. It's even easier against melee infantry. Against ranged infantry they could trample them with their horses. The only thing that could stop them was a stone castle, as they could easily burn the wooden one down. Tactics of English Longbowmen, like digging trenches and using wooden spikes and other obstacles to keep cavalry away from them, could also work.
Flee somewhere else? Where to? Most people Mongols have conquered lived on land that was vastly better than everything around them. China is great fertile plains with large rivers that produce more rice than any areas around it. Compare that with nigh barren steppes of Mongolia, where not even grass grows in sufficient quantities to feed a few horses, making Mongols constantly move from place to place. Iran and Central Asia used to profit from the routes of the Silk Road that went through their areas. Even rather modest European Russia still had plenty of land and not too many people to compete for control of it.
For most people conquered by Mongols, there was no alternative to paying the tribute. As Mongol rule lasted hundreds of years, this tributary system gradually got engrained into the psyche of people who lived under Mongol rule. Even when Mongol rule ended, the new native rules often ruled with the same ruthlessness and plundered their subjects just like Mongols before them.
As for limits of Mongol reach, then while Mongols raided and pillaged as far as Poland, but neither Poland nor Lithuania paid Mongols tribute. Mongol encroachment on Europe was ultimately stopped by Lithuanians somewhere around modern Ukraine and Belarus. Several battles between the two gradually settled a division of Rurikid principalities between the two powers, thought a few border areas, like Smolensk, will remain constantly contested between the two. Lithuania got all of what is now Belarus and northern and western Ukraine. Golden Horde however retained control over lands further east, mostly in modern Russia or south in Crimea and surrounding steppes.
The division was never fully agreed upon, not acknowledged by either side. Both Lithuanians and Mongols seek to take more land and would occasionally re-contest the frontiers. Eventually Muscovy (that later evolved into modern Russia) took former Golden Horde's role of contesting the frontiers against Lithuania. From Lithuanian perspective Muscovy thus was a successor of Golden Horde.
Modern Ukraine and Russia continue to contest this frontier even as I write these lines for my blog.
The frontier however was more than just a border between two neighbors; it was a civilizational divide. Lithuania was Catholic and heavily influenced by European system and European ideas of governance and life in general. Sure, Lithuanians fought against Livonian and Teutonic knights as well, but they were ultimately Europeans. European laws, such as Magdeburg rights, applied throughout the Lithuanian lands.
Golden Horde was different. It originated in Mongolia just north of China, The Horde govern itself and conquered people differently. Horde ruled through fear and extracted tribute from the conquered people. There were no rights and no democracy, there were only obligations to pay tribute and risk of death if you displease the Khan in any way.
Mongolian tribute system, called Mongol Yoke by historians took root in Eastern Principalities and controlled them for several hundred years. Western Principalities like Kingdom of Ruthenia (Galicia-Volhynia) did occasionally paid Mongols tribute, but irregularly mostly seeking to free themselves of Mongol Yoke. In the east however it became an ever-present way of life. Principalities of Rostov-Suzdal-Vladimir, Ryazan-Murom and Tver would be subjects to this system for several centuries.
To play different Rurikid princes against each other, Mongols instituted so called Yarlyk of the Great Prince, where Khan would appoint one of them to be superior to other princes. The appointed Great Prince will have right and obligation to collect tribute from other princes on behalf of the Mongols and later pass it to the Khan. Most of the time, yarlyk of the Great Prince will be given to Princes of Moscow.
Official history traces Moscow (or Muscovy) as a branch principality of the Rostov-Suzdal-Vladimir principality. It was a typical arrangement for Rurikids or elsewhere in Europe. When a prince has several sons, the oldest will get the capital and most of the lands, but his younger brothers will get parts of the principality, centered on second, third and so on biggest city. Moscow was given to the youngest son of Yuri Dolgoruky, whose oldest son got then capital Vladimir (on Klyazma to not confuse it with Volodymir-Volynsky). This branch of Rurikids had many capitals, as they both had many children and needed to provide each with their own capital as well as poor judgement on what would make a good place for a capital. The so-called Golden Ring is a collection of all places they used as their capitals at one point in time.
Compared to other early cities of Rurikid era, Moscow was founded rather late. Early on Moscow was but a tiny wooden fort with no more than 1000 inhabitants. However, its fortunes changed dramatically with advent of Mongol Yoke. For some reasons, Mongols favored Moscow over other principalities and almost always gave them yarlyk to rule over other Rurikid principalities. Only once Muscovy Princes briefly lost it to Princes of Tver, but recovered it over several years time.
Thanks to Mongols Moscow thrived. They likely embezzled some of the tribute they collected for the Khans, allowing them to get richer and richer, as other principalities were getting poorer and poorer. Eventually Muscovy started to grow by buying out lands from other Rurikid Princes. Eventually that left other Princes with not much more, but their capitals surrounded by Muscovy on all sides.
Muscovy did eventually take a stand against the Khans of the Golden Horde. By that time Horde was too weak and constantly plagued by infighting between children of Khans on who gets to be the next ruler. The ultimate end of Mongol Yoke only came after the Grand Stand on Ugra River, more than 250 years after the initial Mongol invasion. There was also a Battle of Kulikovo Field 100 years prior, but Moscow victory there was short lived, as their original ally, they helped to instal as Khan, Tokhtamysh, came to after Moscow, after he consolidated his power in the Horde, and reinstituted the tribute after he took and plundered the city.
Official Russian history celebrates this date, but for other Rurikid Princes, and even other splinter states of the Horde, such as Kazan Khanate, that was hardly a good thing. Very soon after liberation from Golden Horde and sometimes even before that, newly unleashed Muscovy came after them. Unlike the Mongols, Moscow wanted not just tribute, but the entirety of their remaining territories together with their ruling titles and crown jewels. Other principalities under Mongol Yoke, weakened by exploitative tribute, could not offer much resistance and were soon conquered by Moscow.
Moscovy's treatment of fellow Russians were so brutal, many of them would wonder if it was better under Mongols, who at least kept them safe if they paid tribute. Moscovy's self-declared re-unification of Russian lands was no less brutal than original Mongolian conquest.
Once again only Lithuania could stand against Moscow, just as they did against Mongols in the past. Muscovy found itself fighting Lithuanians back and forth over Smolensk, Kursk and other then border towns. Lithuanian union with Poland further strengthened them, making division between Muscovy and Europe near permanent for many years.
Many years late Moscow would partition Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth with Prussia and Austria. Russia will laud it as completing re-unification of Russian lands, but people who lived in the Commonwealth will not see it this way.
Modern war in Ukraine is an echo from these times: Moscow wants to think that common Rurikid past entitles them control over Ukraine and Belarus. However Ukrainian past in Polish Lithuanian commonwealth as well as brief semi-independence during Hetmanate Era weight much stronger on distinct Ukrainian identity.
Back to the original statement with which I begun this article. Russian governance in modern times is essentially transformation of original Mongolian one. Mongolian system of tribute collection gradually evolved into a system of undercover corruption, used in modern Russia, and very likely also China and Iran.
The system is a large hierarchical pyramid of power, where more senior officials demand constant payoffs from their subordinates while themselves paying off their own superiors. Just like back in the days Khans used to demand tribute from Great Prince who in turn collected from other princes, who had to collect from their population. Of how mafia runs protection racket.
The system continuous existence is a sticking point of Russia's internal politics, Russia's relationship with its neighbors and with a collective West at large. More educated Russian citizens want it to be gone altogether and replaced with Western liberal democracy and generally Western way of doing things. Eastern Europe, that was plundered by USSR during Cold War era, just like Mongol Khans used to plunder eastern Rurikid principalities, do not want Russia to return and plunder again. Because of that they are hawkish on Russia and willing to make sacrifices to defend themselves and defeat Russia for good if possible. Finally collective West with their liberal democratic system, that gives Russian liberals the inspiration that things can be done better that Mongol way, for the very same reason annoys Russia power pyramid, or vertical how Putin calls it.
These systemic differences are what drives current war in Ukraine, but not only. Pretty much every conflict since WWII was about these systemic differences. Even recent SCO summing and an alliance between China, Russia, Iran and North Korea is also about that. They agreed to fight against continued existence of liberal democracy and in favor of continued neo-Mongolian governance in their countries.
Historically the trend was always in favor of democracy. Because of that Europeans feel optimistic and count years before Russia too will be democratic as well as member of the EU and NATO. Kremlin, Beijing and Iran in contrast feel apprehensive and take every protest like it's a last stand and they will die fighting rather than surrender.
Because of the above, there is no simple resolution to the Ukrainian conflict. Only change of mentality in Kremlin can move things towards peace. I was writing in many of my articles, its reduction of land and moving capital further east that can help Russia stabilise itself and avert democratization at least temporarily. They are doing exact the opposite, hoping to defeat what is impossible to defeat. Ultimate victory of Mongolian way of course impossible, there is only a question of how much damage they will cause before they go down.